It's the Questions

Questions have surprising power to improve our lives, say a group of thinkers, if only we take the trouble to figure out how they work.

By Leon Neyfakh

May 20, 2012

On a recent Friday morning, a classroom of teenagers at Cambridge Rindge andLatin School broke up into small groups and spent an hour not answering questions about Albert Camus’s “The Plague.” It wasn’t that the students were shy, or bored, or that they hadn’t done the reading. They were following instructions: Ask as many questions as they could, and answer none of them.
The kids wrote in rapid fire on sheets of butcher paper. “Why is everyone acting normal when people are dropping dead?” “Are the doctors aware of this great danger?” “Is there any benefit from the plague? Will it help anyone change or grow?” By the end of the exercise, the class had generated more than 100 questions and exactly zero answers.
In the back of the classroom, Dan Rothstein watched approvingly, taking notes. Though the kids didn’t know it, Rothstein was the one responsible for the unusual way they were spending their class time.
Rothstein is the cofounder of the Right Question Institute, a Cambridge-based nonprofit that exists to promote an idea he’s been nursing for more than a decade—that asking good questions is a life skill far more important than we realize. Rothstein, who has a doctorate in education and social policy from Harvard, believes that learning how to ask questions should be considered as critical as learning how to read, write, and do basic math. He thinks the ability to use questions strategically can make people smarter and better at their jobs, and give them more control when dealing with powerful bureaucracies, doctors, and elected officials.
“It’s not deliberately taught because it seems to be a natural part of speech that doesn’t require much work,” Rothstein says. “It’s assumed that anyone can do it.”

Wielded with purpose and care, a question can become a sophisticated and potent tool to expand minds, inspire new ideas, and give us surprising power at moments when we might not believe we have any.

There is, as yet, no field of “question studies,” but Rothstein and his codirector at the Right Question Institute, Luz Santana, are among a handful of thinkers making a career of taking a close look at how questions work, what our brains are doing when they put a question together, and how questions could drive learning, child development, innovation, business strategy, and creativity.
All of them are driven by the belief that a question is more than the simple thing we might think it is—that, in fact, it’s a unique instrument that we can get better at using if we try. Wielded with purpose and care, a question can become a sophisticated and potent tool to expand minds, inspire new ideas, and give us surprising power at moments when we might not believe we have any.
***
Given how essential questions are to the way we communicate with each other—“So, how’s it going with Sarah?” “Are you going to eat that doughnut?” “How did you get this number?”—there’s been a striking lack of scientific research into what our minds are doing when we ask them. “We know next to nothing,” said Paul Harris, a developmental psychologist at the Harvard Graduate School of Education. In a new book entitled “Trusting What You’re Told,” Harris argues that questions occupy a more central role than we realize in childhood cognitive development. Young children, he says, learn a great deal about the world simply by asking questions and listening to others—a position that contradicts the prevailing wisdom in psychology, which says that children are “little scientists” who learn by observing and experimenting with their environments.
Harris cites a study from 2007 in which the psychologist Michele Chouinard analyzed recordings of four children interacting with caregivers for over 200 hours, and found that on average they asked between one and three questions per minute. Extrapolating from that data, Harris estimates that the four kids Chouinard followed were on pace to ask a total of 40,000 questions between the ages of 2 and 5.
“We’re sort of used to the idea that kids ask a lot of questions, but that’s a huge number,” said Harris. “Even if 90 percent of those bomb, in the sense that they don’t receive an adequate answer or whatever, it seems likely that this is an incredibly important engine for cognitive development.”
When Harris thinks of children asking questions, he sees them performing a series of complex mental maneuvers. “The child has to first realize that they don’t know something...and that other people are information-bearing agents,” Harris said. “Then the child has to be able to, somehow or other, realize that language is a tool for shifting stuff from that person to them.”
Adults tend to rush through those steps, perhaps because they seem like second nature. But figuring out what makes a good question—or rather, what kind of question will get us the information we want—isn’t such a simple thing, even for grownups. It requires stopping to think about what we’re trying to find out, what the person we’re talking to might know, and what words we should use to coax them into helping us. Donald Rumsfeld infamously said in 2002, in reference to the Iraq war, that there were “known unknowns” as well as “unknown unknowns,” or “things we do not know we don’t know.” The statement was mocked at the time, but in fact it reflects the difficult abstract reasoning we all engage in when we’re trying to fill gaps in our knowledge. Being good at asking questions is the art of identifying those gaps, sorting them, and figuring out how to fill them. Considered that way, it is a strange skill: “the ability to organize your thinking around something you know nothing about,” said Rothstein.
That can get harder as we get older, in large part because we grow more confident that we understand the world around us, and lose the capacity to see past our own beliefs. This is a particular concern in the business world, where companies hunger for advice on how to break out of their patterns. Business consultant and former Hewlett-Packard chief technology officer Phil McKinney has styled himself into something of a question specialist for the corporate world, and in his book “Beyond the Obvious,” argues that crafting good questions is precisely what allows people to make imaginative leaps. “The challenge is that, as adults, we lose our curiosity over time. We get into ruts, we become experts in our fields or endeavors,” McKinney said.
Ironically, the tendency to be blinded by our existing knowledge may be at its most extreme among a set of people specifically charged with asking questions: analysts and researchers. Duncan Watts, who studies networks and collective social dynamics at Microsoft Research and is the author of the book “Everything Is Obvious: Once You Know the Answer,” said he has noticed that many of the PhD candidates he comes into contact with are essentially taught to answer other people’s questions, and can be disconcertingly at sea when trying to ask their own.
“There are students who are incredibly good at answering questions but have no idea how to ask one,” Watts said, “and they’ve never thought about what it means.”
For Watts, a good question is one that is both “interesting” and “answerable.” “It’s relatively easy to come up with an answerable question that is not interesting,” he said, “and it’s relatively easy to come up with an interesting question that is unanswerable.” McKinney describes something similar in his book, writing that good questions are ones that can only be answered through investigation, such as, “What is surprisingly inconvenient about my product?” and “Who is using my product in a way I never intended—and how?”
Of course, for most people, asking questions is usually not just about coming up with innovative ideas—it’s about extracting information from others. But even seemingly factual questions can be deployed tactically: In their new book from Harvard Education Press, “Make Just One Change,” Rothstein and Santana from the Right Question Institute outline a basic classification system, dividing questions into ones that can be answered with a single word (like “yes” or “no”) and ones that require a more discursive response. Choosing the right question is in part a matter of making the right trade-off between clarity and depth: “Does the president support gay marriage?” versus “How have the president’s views on gay marriage evolved?” As part of their “Question Formulation Technique,” which is what the kids at Cambridge Rindge and Latin were engaged in that Friday morning, they ask people to transform one type of question into the other, in order to demonstrate that the way a question is structured can determine the range of possible answers it can inspire.
***
For their part, Rothstein and Santana have grander ambitions than simply enlivening class discussions of Camus. They also see questions as having broader power in people’s lives. Most of us are regularly faced with situations in which someone is making a decision that affects us, and when that happens, asking questions—the right kind of questions—is a way to capture a measure of control.
“For example, doctors makes decisions all the time—they change your medication, they give you referrals, they decide what kind of treatment you are going to get—and very often...people leave the office without really knowing what’s happening,” said Santana.
This is where appreciating the mechanics of questions can come into play. In this case, they say, it’s important to avoid the impulse to ask questions merely about the consequences, but to ask instead about the process: how the decision was made, based on what, and with whose input. And that’s true not just in the doctor’s office, but when you’re picking up your car from the mechanic, applying for a job, settling a claim with your insurance company, or talking to your child’s teacher at a parent-teacher conference.
“Years ago I was a welfare recipient, and at the welfare office they used to make a bunch of decisions that affected me—the kind of grant I was getting, whether I was getting one or not, for how long, whether I qualified for a child-care voucher,” said Santana. “Very often in those situations you are denied of services, and if you don’t know what questions to ask, it is likely that you won’t get what you need.”
In other words, the simple childhood habit of asking “What’s that?” and “Why?” takes on far more importance when it affects real life power dynamics. In the adult world, when a question shifts information from one person to the other, things can actually change.
“It’s essential to democracy,” said Rothstein. “You want citizens to be able to ask good questions.”

Leon Neyfakh is the staff writer for Ideas. E-mail lneyfakh@globe.com.
http://bostonglobe.com/ideas/2012/05/19/just-ask/k9PATXFdpL6ZmkreSiRYGP/story.html
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An inversion of expertise

Just finished watching four-star general, Stanley McChrystal's TED Talk and discussing with some school board members from around the state.  We talked a bit about our stereotype of the military compared to what McChrystal talked about.

First, that the leader is not the expert. McChrystal talked about the inversion of expertise; that the pace of change, particularly regarding communication tools, means that the leader needs to learn to be comfortable with the fact that he or she may not have the market cornered on technical expertise.  That instead, the leader needs to listen; that developing personal relationships is some of the most important work the leader can do; that others will bring important expertise to the table.

That diversity needs to be embraced.  The troops he leads are diverse--age, gender, experience.  You need to create a climate that uses experiences and skill sets of a diverse group of people.

So much of what McChrystal talked about applies to public education.  Our leaders must adapt to a new context, one where leadership means building relationships, not making all of the decisions from on high.

We need to engage with diverse stakeholders--both internal staff and external community.  We need to develop personal relationships.  And most of all, as leaders, we need to be willing to learn and to trust.

Surprising that this is the message of a military man.  I think that is what makes it so powerful for me.

Are you on a mission?

Okay, those of you who know me, know that I am a baseball fan.  More explicitly, a Cubs fan.  And, if you follow baseball at all, you know the Cubs have new leadership.  You know that Theo Epstein came from the Boston Red Sox to change the Cubs culture; to end the 102 year losing streak.

I was watching an interview with Tom Ricketts, owner of the Cubs, talking about the change in leadership.  He said something, that caught my ear.  He said, "these guys are on a mission."

Well, it seems to me that there are some parallels here between baseball and public education.  It has been at least 102 years that the basic structure of how public education is delivered has been in place.  So, my question to school board members is this:  Are you on a mission?  Are you focused on creating a culture that brings about the kinds of changes we need to meet the needs of today's students?

The Cupcake Wars

This New York Times article describes the difficulties of fundraising in public schools.  For urban schools in areas that are gentrifying, resentment can develop on the part of both newcomers and residents who have long worked to keep schools together.  Class differences can cause difficulties as new comers with more means attempt to use their expertise to raise money for their children's schools, leaving long-time residents feeling discounted.

More and more school districts are turning to foundations and other fundraising methods to supplement shrinking public support for schools. And, in some places, this "solution" is creating different problems, some that may be more difficult to address than raising money.

Early Warning Systems

This article from Education Week explains how educators are learning to use leading indicators to better target resources and reach students who may be at risk for falling behind.

The connection between collaboration and innovation

Google was interested in learning if there was a connection between collaboration and innovation. So, they did a little research.  Turns out that there is a strong correlation between the two.  If 1 is an absolute correlation, and 0 is no correlation, the collaboration-innovation is pretty strong, .81.

Seems like no matter which way we look at it, relationships, teams, connection are required for success in today's world.

Do you know where you are going?

I am sitting in Midway Airport thinking about vision.  We describe vision as declaring where you want  to be in a specified period of time.  Three years. Five years.  AND, I am thinking of one of my favorite Yogi Berra quotes, "If you don't know where you are going, you might wind up someplace else." It occurs to me that creating and communicating your vision is a lot like air travel.  I have spent a lot of time in airports over the last year, many of them for the first time.

Airports are incredibly easy to navigate, even if you've never been in a particular one before. That's because the signage is crystal clear. Short-term parking Long-term parking Economy parking Arrivals  Departures Concourse Gates Baggage claim I think you get the idea.

Now I know that creating a vision for a school district is much more complex.  And I still think we can learn from the airport metaphor. Are you clear about where you want to go? What is your district's vision? Do you have clear signs for getting there? Do you have goals? Do you check data to see if you are on the right track? Do you practice continuous improvement, celebrating what works and asking what could be better?

We know what it feels like to get diverted, to run into rough weather. And yet the plane still arrives, even if it is late.  

 Do you have a clear picture of your district's journey? Do you send consistent messages about your vision? Do you continuously ask, "what does this have to do with our vision?" If not, how can you know where you are going? How can you know when you get there?

What makes a leader?

This newsletter from Alternative Resolutions h as a nice list of skills and dispositions found in today's successful leaders.

Arne Duncan on The Daily Show

Arne Duncan was on the Daily Show last week, talking about Race to the Top and the new initiative aimed at improving the teaching profession.

Hope for Wisconsin Testing

Wisconsin has taken a leading roll in the SMARTER Balanced Assessment Consortium.  In this article on assessment in California, Linda Darling Hammond explains how this test will be good for California students.  It will be interesting to see how testing experts in Wisconsin will view the change for our state.

Cognitive dissonance

"Support for Republican candidates, who generally promise to cut government spending, has increased since 1980 in states where the federal government spends more than it collects. The greater the dependence, the greater the support for Republican candidates.

Conversely, states that pay more in taxes than they receive in benefits tend to support Democratic candidates."


The above is taken from an article in Sunday's New York Times, Even Critics of Safety Net Increasingly Depend on It.


How do you explain this phenomenon?  The following graphs only further add to my curiosity.  Here in Wisconsin, the vast majority of jobs that will be created by 2018 will require absolutely no education.  And workers cannot support their families on these jobs.  In fact, if you look at the last two slides in this post, you will see the dramatic increase in poverty in the  state over the last six years, as well-paying manufacturing jobs continue to disappear from the state.  Twenty-three years ago, Minnesota and Wisconsin had roughly the same per capita income.  No more.  Today, Wisconsin lags behind Minnesota.  Today, the gap is over $4,000 and continues to grow.

2018 Wisconsin Job Openings by Education

Poverty in Wisconsin has risen dramatically in the last five years.  As you look at these maps,  white counties have the lowest poverty rates, degrees of pink indicate increasing levels of poverty, deep red  indicates counties with highest poverty rates.


What are the implications of this for our schools and our children?


I often wonder, where is the leadership to take on this problem?  Perhaps the answer can be found in the quote from the NYT article.  

Function limited by form

 Larry Cuban talks about one of the most successful reforms ever introduced to public education: graded classrooms, in this blog post,  Ungraded schools: Past and Present. Of particular note is the notion that part of the reason we have such difficulty changing this practice is the design of our school buildings.  While there are many forces that work to keep graded classrooms in place, the "egg crate" design, where each teacher has his or her own classroom, limits teachers' ability to create multi-age classrooms, create workstations that integrate technology,  and work in teams with large groups of students.

This post is the second of a three-part series Cuban wrote about the forces that work against today's efforts to transform public schools to address the needs of today's learners. Interesting reading for anyone interested in education reform.

Thinking outside of the box--the classroom box

In this Ed Week article, Arthur Wise takes a look at the way our facilities inhibit innovation and offers an interesting way of organizing our schools. Take a look and then think about how you might re-imagine your facilities to provide 21st century programming.

Even in baseball it's hard

So, those of you who know me, know that I love baseball.  And you probably also are aware of the way we talk about the tradition of baseball, it's long history.  Well, it can be hard to change those traditions.  Last night, I finally had a chance to see Moneyball.  The movie is about Billy Beane, the general manager of the Oakland Athletics and what he did to create a winning team in a game where the playing field may be level, but the system of acquiring players is not.  A game where big money teams like the Yankees have an advantage when it comes to putting a team together. To quote Harry Carey, "HOLY COW!"  I could not stop thinking about the connection to public education.

The story is not about baseball.  The story is about leadership and change. It's about having a vision and the commitment to stick with that vision.  It's about what it takes to stand in the face of resistance to what you are doing and doing it anyway.  It's about complex problems and the way they act; sometimes making things worse in the short run, and showing how if you stick with it, learning as you go and making adjustments, you can win big.

Imagine what we could do in public education if we could do that!  I am sure we'd hit a grand slam, and old Harry would stand up and say "Kids win!  Kids win! Kids win!(see note below)

(For those of you who are wondering who is Harry Carey:   (Baseball announcer for the St. Louis Cardinals, Chicago White Sox and Chicago Cubs.  When the Cubs would win, he was always say, "Cubs win! Cubs win! Cubs win!)

Creativity

Many of you are familiar with Ken Robinson's TED Talk on creativity.  He talks about how we are all born with creativity and that we unlearn it in school.  Mostly because school focuses on developing the rational part of the brain, and ignores the creative side.  We talk about creativity coming from the right side of the brain.  In this Harvard Business Review blog post, Tony Schwartz talks about how we need to use the right AND left sides of the brain to be creative.

Just because you have a PLC doesn'y mean you are effective

Many school districts have adopted professional learning communities, and with good reason.  If we are going to transform our schools, the people most responsible for accomplishing that task need time to work together to make sense of your vision.

Professional learning communities offer an opportunity for teams of teachers to do just that.  However, just because you pull a team together, doesn't mean that it is going to be effective.  Vivian Troen and Katherine C Boles outline Five Conditions of Good Teams in this Harvard Education Letter.

Fit or Fish?

In this Harvard Business Review Blog Network article A Non-profit Board of a Group of Dead Fish lists three qualities of effective board members.  Doesn't seem like too much to ask.  What do you think?  Are you a fit board member?  Or, are your smelling up the room?  Pointed question, yes.  Big stakes for your board if you are a fish.

Everywhere I look, I see the need for trust!

Okay, so the research project I have been working on has brought trust to the forefront for me, and I am looking for it everywhere I go.  Only because every person interviewed, all 35 of them, indicated that it was a factor in evaluating information from the school district's administrative team.  AND, in another area of life that is close to my heart, turns out trust is important in baseball as well.  


For those of you who do not know, Carlos Zambrano has pitched for the Chicago Cubs for the last ten years. The last few have not been memorable, at least not in the winning sense. Instead, Carlos has been known for his temper tantrums, and ultimately walking out on the team last August.  So, Carlos has been less then a team player.  This week, the Cubs traded him, citing players concerns about whether or not they could trust Big Z to change his ways.  A quote from Theo Epstein, Cubs President,


"But Epstein, who took over as president of baseball operations in late October, discovered a recurring theme in conversations with players and front-office executives regarding Zambrano. None of them trusted the mercurial pitcher to change his ways. Epstein had outlined steps Zambrano needed to take to earn his way back with the Cubs, but he said he was skeptical it could happen."


Do other members of your team, the school board, trust that you are a team player?

Focusing on Relationships

I have been thinking a lot about relationships lately as I have been digging into data from a research project that I have been involved in over the last two years.  The big question of the project examined how school board members used research in their deliberation and decision-making.  Turns out they only use research that is presented from a trusted source.  This might be the superintendent or some other district staff member.  It might be an external source that the board member finds on his or her own. The big point is that whether board members consider research in their decision making depends less on the quality of the research and more on the credibility of the person or organization presenting or conducting the research.

What is evident to me from looking at the data, is that the technical stuff cannot give us the answers.  We have spent decades and millions of dollars pursuing change in public education, and we have not made much progress.  In many ways, we are always changing and never changing.  We are focused on the wrong things.  Until we focus on supporting the people, we will not successfully transform public education.  We can only be successful when we focus on relationships.  The Dalai Lama offers these tips:  20 Ways to Get Good Karma.